Hello Guys ... kali ini
saya akan memposting tentang Applied Linguistik terapan. Banyak sekali
bidang-bidang Linguistik terapan sesuai dengan kebutuhan.Oky sebelum saya
menjelaskan apa itu lingustik terapan,saya jelaskan dulu apa itu Linguistik..
Kata linguistik (linguistics-Inggris)
berasal dari bahasa Latin “lingua” yang berarti bahasa. Dalam bahasa Perancis
“langage-langue”; Italia “lingua”; Spanyol “lengua” dan Inggris “language”.
Akhiran “ics” dalam linguistics berfungsi untuk menunjukkan nama sebuah ilmu,
yang berarti ilmu tentang bahasa, sebagaimana istilah economics, physics dan lain-lain.Menurut
Pringgodigdo dan Hasan Shadili, sebagaimana dikutip oleh Mansoer Pateda,
“linguistik adalah penelaahan bahasa secara ilmu pengetahuan”. Sedangkan AS
Hornby membagi kata linguidtics ke dalam dua kategori, sebagai kata sifat dan
kata benda. Linguistics sebagai kata sifat berarti “the study of language and
languages”.Sedangkan linguistics sebagai kata benda, berarti “the science of
language; methods of learning and studying languages”. Dengan demikian,
linguistik menurut AS Hornby berarti ilmu bahasa atau metode mempelajari
bahasa. Sedangkan Kata
Terapan/menerapkan, berpadanan dengan to apply, yang Artinya Memakai atau
Menggunakan bisa juga dimaknai Menginjak, Mempergunakan, dan mengerahkan. Makna
kata Applied = put to practical use. Dari kata applied lahir gabungan kata
applied linguistic yang sepadan dengan linguistic terapan (ilmu lugah
al-tatbiqy). Namun Ada pula ahli linguis yang tidak setuju dengan istilah itu,
Spolsky lebih setuju dengan istilah educational linguistic (linguistic
Pendidikan).Jadi bisa di simpulkan bahwa linguistik terapan adalah pemanfaatan
pengetahuan tentang alamiah bahasa yang dihasilkan oleh peneliti bahasa yang
dipergunakan untuk meningkatkan keberhasilgunaan tugas-tugas praktis yang
menggunakan bahasa sebagai komponen inti.
History
The
applied linguistic tradition established itself in response to the narrowing of
focus in linguistics with the emergence of generative linguistics in the late
1950s, and has alwaysmaintained a social responsibility role, expressed by a
major interest in language problems.Although the field of applied linguistics
begins from Europe and the United States, this field is rapidly evolving in an
international context.Applied linguistics initially takes into account the
principles and practices of linguistic foundations. At first, applied
linguistics is regarded as "applied linguistics" at least from
outside its field.However in 1960 applied linguistics was expanded to include
language assessment, language policy, and second language acquisition. In the
early 1970s, applied linguistics became a field of problem-directed rather than
merely theoretical linguistics. Applied linguistics also includes solutions to
problems related to language in the real world. In the 1990s, applied
linguistics was widespread, encompassing critical study and multilingualism.
Applied linguistic research is shifted to"theoretical and empirical
investigation of real-world problems in which language is a central issue.
P.
Trudgill (1974: 32):
Sosiolinguistik adalah bagian dari
linguistik yang berkaitan dengan bahasa sebagai fenomena sosial dan budaya. Ini
menyelidiki bidang bahasa dan masyarakat & memiliki hubungan dekat dengan
ilmu sosial, terutama psikologi sosial, antropologi, geografi manusia dan
sosiologseCoulmas (1997, hal 2):Mikro-sosiolinguistik menyelidiki bagaimana
struktur sosial mempengaruhi cara orang berbicara dan bagaimana variasi dan
pola bahasa berkorelasi dengan atribut sosial seperti kelas, jenis kelamin,dan
usia.Makro-sosiolinguistik, mempelajari apa yang dilakukan masyarakat dengan
bahasa mereka, yaitu, sikap dan keterikatan yang mengandalkan distribusi
fungsional bentuk-bentuk pidato di masyarakat, pergeseran bahasa, pemeliharaan,
penggantian, delimitasi dan interaksi komunitas ujaran.kali antara struktur
linguistik dan struktur sosial dan masing-masing independen dari yang lain.
A. Language Variation:
Focus on Users
There are four language variation that
are based on its users. The first is idiolect, the second is dialect, the next
is social dialect and the last is temporal dialect. The description of those
language variation can be seen as follow:
1. Idiolect
Idiolect is the language variation that
is individual in nature (Chaer & Agustina, 1995:82). Everyone has his own
language variation or his own idiolect. This idiolect variation is concerning
with the colours of voice, choice of words, language style, sentence order,
etc.The colours of voice is the most dominant aspect in language variation,
because we can recognize someone just by listening to voice without seeing the
person.
2. Dialect
According to Spolsky (1998:33) dialect
is something that concerns variations which are located regionally or socially.
Dialect also means the language variation that comes from a group of users that
are relative in numbers, living in one particular place,region or area (Chaer
& Agustina, 1995:83). Since dialect is based on the place,region or area
where the users live, it is usually called as area dialect,regional dialect or
geography dialect. The users of a dialect have certain featuresthat mark them
as people who have the same dialect although they have their own idiolect.People
who use Javanese with dialect of Semarang have their own particular features
that are different from others who have the dialect of Surabaya. But they can
communicate well with each other because those dialects are included in the
same language, Javanese.The definition mentioned by (Chaer & Agustina,
1995) above is in line with what Spolsky (1998) concludes about regional
dialects. He concludes that regional dialects tend to show less differences
from their close neighbours and greater differences from distant neighbours
(Spolsky, 1998:29).Regional variation or regional dialect
can also be found in the internatonal world.The variation can be distinguished from
the pronunciation, vocabulary and even from the grammatical differences
(Holmes, 2001:124). Pronunciation and vocabulary differences probably are the
easiest differences that people aware of between different dialects of English.The
examples of the pronunciation differences mentioned by Holmes (2001:124) in her
book is the word dad pronounced by a New Zealander that to
British ears sounds like deadthat pronouncedby an English person
and the word god pronounced by an American that sounds
like guard that pronounced by an English and the word latter that
sounds like ladderto many non-American English speakers. The
examples of the vocabulary differences can be found in the term used by
Australians, people live in England and New-Zealanders. Australians use the
term sole parents, while people live in England use single
parents and New-Zealanders call them solo parents. South
Africans use the term robot while British call exactly the
same thing as traffic light. Furthermore, Holmes (2001:125) gives
the example of the American vs British influence on vocabulary used in one’s
region. It can be examined by using the ten questions using both American and
British items. Those ten questions are:
a.When you go window-shopping do you
walk on the pavement or the sidewalk?
b.Do you put your shopping in the car’s trunk or in the boot?
c.When the car’s engine needs oil do you open the bonnet or the hood?
b.Do you put your shopping in the car’s trunk or in the boot?
c.When the car’s engine needs oil do you open the bonnet or the hood?
There are eight sentences created by Holmes (2001:125) to distingushed the preferred American from the traditional British usages. Those eight sentences are:
a.Do you have a match?
b.Have you got a cigarrete?
c. She has gotten used to the noise.
b.Have you got a cigarrete?
c. She has gotten used to the noise.
The explanation made by Holmes (2001:125) of those eight sentences are that Americans prefer to use do you have while the traditional British English use have you got, Americans use gotten while most people in England use got, many Americans use dove while most British English speakers prefer dived and Americans ask did you eat? while the English askhave you eaten? A.Variasi Bahasa: Fokus pada Pengguna Ada empat variasi bahasa yang didasarkan pada penggunanya. Yang pertama adalah idiolect, yang kedua adalah dialek, yang berikutnya adalah dialek sosial dan yang terakhir adalah dialek temporal. Deskripsi variasi bahasa tersebut dapat dilihat sebagai berikut:
B. Language Variation: Focus on Uses
In terms of language variation that are
based on its uses, the discussion is focused on the ways in which speech
reflects the contexts in which language is used and not the characteristics of
the speakers (Holmes, 2001:223). The language variation that is concerning with
the uses or functions can be called as style or register.Style For the term style, there are many definitions
which are basically the same. The first to be mentioned here is the definition
given by Marjohan (1988:34) that style refers to a variation in speech or
writing from more formal to more casual. Some markers for the formal style
would be the use of may instead of might and can and
also constructions such as For whom did you get it? Instead
of Who’d you get that for? in more casual speech. Bell’s (ed.
Jaworski, 1997) statement about style is in line with the statement made by
Holmes (2001:223) above that style is related more with the situations than
with the speakers themselves. This can be seen in his statement that when we
want to talk about style, it means that we talk about the same speakers who
talk in different ways on different situations and not the different speakers
who talk in different ways from each other (Bell, ed. Jaworski, 1997:240).According
to Holmes (2001:246) the term style refers to language variation which reflects
changes in situational factors. She also mentions that styles are often
analysed according to the levels of formality (Holmes, 2001:246). This is in
accordance with Martin Joos (1967) in his book The Five Clocks as quoted by
Nababan (1986:22) who divides the style of formality into five levels, frozen,
formal, consultative, casual and intimate styles. The description of these
styles can be seen in the following:
a. Frozen style. It is the
most formal style used in formal situations and ceremonies (Nababan, 1986:22).
It is called frozen because the pattern has been set up firmly and can never be
changed by anyone. In written form, we can see this style in historical
documents, ratification, and other formal documents.
b. Formal style. It is the
style used in formal speech, formal meeting, office correspendence, lesson
books for school, etc (Chaer & Agustina, 1995:93). Formal style is
basically similar to the frozen style that is only used in formal situations
and not in informal situations. The example of formal style as quoted by Marjohan
(1988:35) from Nababan (1987) is the first paragraph of the opening of the 1945
constitution of the Republic of Indonesia that was written in a formal or even
in a frozen style.
c. Casual style. It is the
style used to speak with friends, family or relatives, during the leisure time,
while exercising, etc (Chaer & Agustina, 1995:93). The casual style markers
in English mentioned in Marjohan’s book (1988:35) are:
1. The absence of an article at the
beginning of a sentence, for example:
-Friend of mine saw it.
-Coffee’s cold.
2. The absence of the subject at the
beginning of a sentence, for example:
a. Bought it yesterday?
b. Makes no difference.
3. The absence of an auxiliary, for
example:
a. Leaving?
b. Seen John lately?
d. Intimate style. This is
the style used with people who have close relationships with the
speaker (Nababan, 1986:22). By using this style those people do not
need to use complete sentences with clear articulation, they just simply use
short words. It happens mainly because there is an understanding among those
people.A number of kinds of style can also be found in the study conducted by
Labov in 1966 as mentioned by Bell (ed. Jaworski, 1997:241) in his writing. In
gathering some useful informations from his informants, Labov used a series of
language tasks and recorded his interviews with them. From this recordings, he
found the casual speech or the condition of paying the least attention to
someone’s speech. This casual speech was used when a speaker was speaking to
someone else who was not the interviewer, or discussing topics which got the
speaker and that someone involved with each other. He also found another style,
the careful style or the condition of paying a bit more attention to someone’s
speech. This style especially revealed in the recordings when a speaker was
answering questions in a typical interview way and when a speaker paid more
attention to his pronunciation whenever he was asked to read aloud a brief
passage of a story. Labov also found that there was the maximum amount of
attention that was paid to a one’s speech whenever a speaker was asked to read
out a list of isolated words and a set of minimal pairs.
Register
For the term register, according to
Holmes (2001:246) it refers to the language of groups
of people with common interests or jobs,
or the language used in situations associated with such groups. The examples of
different registers can be seen in the language used by journalist, legalist,
auctioneers, race-callers, sports commentator, airline pilots, criminals,
financiers, politicians, disc jockeys and also the language used in the
courtroom and the classroom. One example mentioned by Holmes (2001:247) in her
book the language used by people who describe a sporting event which can be
distinguished easily from language used in other contexts especially in the
vocabulary. In cricket, people describe positions by using terms like silly
mid on, square leg, the covers and gully and
describe deliveries by using terms like off-break, googly and leg
break.
A variety of language marked by choices
of vocabulary and used in a specific situation involving particular roles and
statuses can also be considered as a register as well (Spolsky, 1998;34). The
examples include a toast at a wedding, sports broadcast, or talking to a baby.
As mentioned by Brown (2000:261) besides maintaining solidarity, registers are
also used to identify different occupational or socioeconomic groups, that can
be done in many ways, for example by looking at certain phonological variants, vocabulary,
idioms or other expressions. Truckers, airline pilots, salespersons and farmers
can be good examples of people who use words and phrases which are unique to
their own groups.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
THANK
YOU :)
